China’s cultural diplomacy in Malaysia during Najib Razak’s premiership
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14764/10.ASEAS-0016Keywords:
China-Malaysia Relations, Confucius Institute, Cultural Diplomacy, Soft Power, Tertiary Education, Zheng HeAbstract
This article aims to provide an analysis of China’s cultural diplomacy (CCD) in Malaysia in the latter years of the premiership of Najib Razak (2015-2018). It intends to reflect on the efforts China has been exerting in order to increase its soft power in the Southeast Asian nation. The authors have identified and analyzed four major fields of CCD: the activities of two Confucius Institutes; the first overseas campus of a renowned Chinese university; invocations of shared history, embodied mainly by the figure of the legendary admiral-eunuch Zheng He, regularly commemorated as China’s historic envoy of peace; and Malay translations of classical Chinese novels. The article’s findings reveal an intricate pattern of networks involving various actors, both Chinese and Malaysian, state, semi-state, and non-state, pursuing their own particular interests, which tend to converge and overlap with the aims of Chinese cultural diplomacy. The implementation of CCD has also been formed by the local political and societal structures: a) a ‘special’ relation between Razak’s cabinet and the PRC leadership, revolving around party-based diplomacy and intensive economic cooperation especially between 2015 and May 2018; b) the presence of a large Chinese community, which provides opportunities and, at the same time, creates limitations for the China´s cultural diplomacy practice in Malaysia.
References
Baviera, A. S. P. (2011). Accommodation with hedging: Southeast Asia’s changing perspectives towards Chi¬na. In H. S. Yee (Ed.), China’s rise – threat or opportunity? (pp. 176-190). New York: Routledge.
Beck, E. (2014, March 13). Chinese mosque for Malacca. Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved from http://www. freemalaysiatoday.com/category/leisure/2014/03/10/chinese-mosque-for-malacca/
Bentley, S. (2018). Malaysia’s “special relationship” with China and the South China Sea: Not so special any more. In G. Rozman & J. C. Liow (Eds.), International relations and Asia’s southern tier. ASEAN, Australia, and India (pp. 125-141). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chang, P. T. C. (2018, May 11). Ethnic Chinese in Malaysia are celebrating China’s rise – but as multicultural Malaysians, not Chinese. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from https://www.scmp.com/comment/ insight-opinion/article/2145521/ethnic-chinese-malaysia-are-celebrating-chinas-rise
Cheng, J. Y. S. (2013). China-ASEAN economic co-operation and the role of the provinces. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 43(2), 314-337.
Chia, L. S., & Church, S. K. (2012). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: PERZIM – International Zheng He Society.
Chiam, N. (2018, October 17). The 3rd International Seminar on the Modernization of Islam in China in University Sultan Zainal Abidin (UNISZA). Retrieved from http://kongzium.edu.my/main/2-017/10/18/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%B1%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%8A%E6%96 %AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E7%A0%94%E8%AE%A8%E4%BC%9A%E5-%9C%A8%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A-%E8%8B%8F%E4%B8%B9%E5%86%8D/
China’s Xiamen University officially open campus in Greater KL. (2016, February 24). InvestKLMalaysia. Retrieved from http://www.investkl.gov.my/Relevant_News-@-China%E2%80%99s_Xiamen_Univer¬sity_officially_open_campus_in_Greater_KL.aspx
Chinese classic ‘Journey to the West’ now available in BM. (2014, July 4). New Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/09/chinese-classic-%E2%80%98journey-west%E2%80%99 -now-available-bm
Chinese envoy must apologise or go back to his country, Utusan says. (2015, September 27). Malay Mail Online. Retrieved from https://www.malaymail.com/s/977313/chinese-envoy-must-apologise-or-go-back-to-his-country-utusan-says
Chinese naval servicemen visit Zheng He relics in Malaysia. (2012, May 4). PLA Daily. Retrieved from http://en.people.cn/90786/7807942.html
Dreyer, E. L. (2007). Zheng He. China and the oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty: 1405-1433. New York: Pearson Longman.
Ethnic Groups of Malaysia. (2018). World Atlas. Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ ethnic-groups-of-malaysia.html
Exciting programme planned for Confucius Institute at SEGi University. (2016, May 2). SEGi University. Re¬trieved from https://www.segi.edu.my/news-events-1/exciting-programme-planned-for-confucius-in¬stitute-at-segi-university
Exnerova, V. (2017). Introducing transnationalism studies to the field of public diplomacy. The Journal of International Communication, 23(2), 186-199.
Faist, T. (2006). The transnational social spaces of migration. COMCAD Arbeitspapiere. Bielefeld: Center on Migration, Citizenship and Development.
Full text of Premier’s speech at the 10th East Asia Summit. (2015, November 25). The State Council, The People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://english.gov.cn/premier/speeches/2015/11/25/con¬tent_281475241888610.htm
Galeri Laksamana Cheng Ho. (n.d.). Perbadanan muzium negeri Melaka [Malacca museum cooperation]. Retrieved from http://www.perzim.gov.my/en/portfolio/galeri-laksamana-cheng-ho/
Gienow-Hecht, J., & Donfried, M. (2010). The model of cultural diplomacy: Power, distance and the promise of civil society. In J. Gienow-Hecht & M. Donfried (Eds.), Searching for a cultural diplomacy (pp. 13-29). Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Gil, J. (2015). China’s cultural projection: A discussion of the Confucius Institutes. China: An International Journal 13(1), 200-226.
Gilboa, E. (2008). Searching for a theory of public diplomacy. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, 55-77.
Hanban scholarship (n.d.). Kong Zi Institute University of Malaya. Retrieved from http://kongzium.edu.my/ main/study-in-china/scholarship/
Hartig, F. (2012). Confucius Institutes and the rise of China. Journal of Chinese Political Sciences, 17(1), 53-76.
Hocking, B. (2005). Rethinking the ‘new’ public diplomacy. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 28-43). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hong, L., & Huang, J. (2009). Portable histories in mobile city Singapore: The (lack)lustre of Admiral Zheng He. South East Asia Research, 17(2), 287-309.
d’Hooghe, I. (2011). The expansion of China’s public diplomacy system. In J. Wang (Ed.), Soft power in Chi¬na: Public diplomacy through communication (pp. 19-36). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
d’Hooghe, I. (2015). China’s public diplomacy. Leiden: Brill.
Hu Jintao calls for enhancing ‘soft power’ of Chinese culture. (2007, October 15). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/english/2007-10/15/content_776553.htm
Hruby, J. (in press). Establishing a common ground – Admiral Zheng He as an agent of cultural diplomacy in Malaysia. In G. Rawnsley & J. Ptackova (Eds.), Regional variations of Chinese cultural diplomacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ignatius, D. (2017, January 13). Malaysia’s China conundrum. Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved from https:// www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion/2017/01/13/malaysias-china-conundrum/
Ignatius, D. (2018, May 16). Reset in Malaysia-China relations. Dennis Ignatius. Retrieved from https:// dennisignatius.com/2018/05/16/reset-in-malaysia-china-relations/
International Zheng He Society. (n.d.). Discovery of Zheng He’s guan chang in Melaka. Retrieved from http://www.chengho.org/news/news8.1.php
Jia Qinglin delivers a speech at the welcoming banquet held by overseas Chinese in Malaysia and visits Malacca. (2013, February 7). Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the European Union. Retrieved from http://www.chinamission.be/eng/zgwj/t1014078.htm
Jiang, T. (2015, June 24). Interview: Malacca stands to benefit from “Belt and Road” initiative. Xinhua. Retrieved from w.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-04/26/c_134185358.htm
Kaur, M. (2013, August 26). Ipoh mosque features Chinese architecture. The Star. Retrieved from https:// www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/08/26/ipoh-mosque-features-chinese-architecture/
Kornphanat, T. (2016). Culture and commerce: China’s soft power in Thailand. International Journal of China studies, 7(2), 151-173.
Kuik, C. (2013). Making sense of Malaysia’s China policy: Asymmetry, proximity, and elite’s domestic authority. The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 6(4), 429-467.
Kuik, C., Li, R., & Sien, N. L. (2017). The institutional foundations and features of China-ASEAN connec¬tivity. In L. Dittmer & C. B. Ngeow (Eds.), Southeast Asia and China. A contest in mutual socialization (pp. 247-278). Singapore: World Scientific Pubslishing Co.
Kurlantzik, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China’s soft power is transforming the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lai, H., & Lu, Y. (Eds.). (2012). China’s soft power and international relations. New York: Routledge.
Lee, C. G., & Alam, N. (2005, May 1). Islamic finance potential in China. Islamic Markets. Retrieved from https://islamicmarkets.com/articles/islamic-finance-potential-china
Li Keqiang visits Malacca, indicating to carry forward China-Malaysia peace and friendship and create a future of mutually beneficial cooperation. (2015, November 23). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/lkqcxdyhzldrxl¬hybdmlxyjxzsfw/t1318284.shtml
Li, M. (2011). Soft power: Nurture not nature. In M. Li (Ed.), Soft power: China’s emerging strategy in interna¬tional politics (pp. 1-18). Lanham: Lexington Books.
Li, Q., & Cao, J. (2012, April 19). “Zheng He” training ship’s round-the-world navigation boasts four fea¬tures. PLA Daily. Retrieved from http://en.people.cn/90786/7792075.html
Li, R. (2005, May 28). Significance of Zheng He’s voyages. Beijing Review. Retrieved from http://www. bjreview.cn/EN/En-2005/05-28-e/china-2.htm
Looit, E. (2009, December 4). Chinese-style mosques for Malaysia. The Straits Times. Retrieved from http:// www.ytlcommunity.com/commnews/shownews.asp?newsid=50243
Mahathir warns of new ‘colonialism’ during visit to China. (2018, August 20). Bloomberg News. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-20/mahathir-warns-against-new-colonial¬ism-during-visit-to-china
Malaysian PM unveils Zheng He exhibition. (2005, July 6). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.china.org. cn/english/culture/134186.htm
Malhi, A. (2018). Race, debt and sovereignty – The ‘China Factor’ in Malaysia’s GE14. The Round Table. The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 107(6), 717-728.
Mark, S. (2009). A greater role for cultural diplomacy. Discussion Papers in Diplomacy, 114. The Hague: The Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’.
Melissen, J. (2005). The new public diplomacy: between theory and practice. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 3-27). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moving up the value chain. (2017). The Business Year. Retrieved from https://www.thebusinessyear.com/ malaysia-2017/supporting-innovation/interview
Murali, R. S. N. (2013, January 30). Zheng He ‘returns’ to Malacca. The Star. Retrieved from https://www. thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/01/30/zheng-he-returns-to-malacca_1/
Murphy, Z. (2010, July 28). Zheng He: Symbol of China’s ‘peaceful rise’. BBC. Retrieved from http://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10767321128
Ngeow, C. B. (2017a). Barisan Nasional and Chinese Communist Party: A case study in China’s party based diplomacy. The China Review, 17(1), 53-82.
Ngeow, C. B. (2017b, May 18). China’s religious charm offensive: The case of Malaysia. Asia Dialogue. Retrieved from https://theasiadialogue.com/2017/05/18/chinas-religious-charm-offensive-the-case-of-malaysia/
No harm in having Chinese mosque. (2007. February 6). The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar. com.my/opinion/letters/2007/02/06/no-harm-in-having-chinese-mosque/
Nostalgic ties with Malaysia. (2018, June 8). Xiamen University Malaysia. Retrieved from http://www.xmu. edu.my/59/ee/c14682a285166/page.htm
Nye, J. (2011). The future of power. New York: Public Affairs.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. New York: Public Affairs.
Pagoda-like mosque all set for debut. (2009, August 16). The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com. my/news/nation/2009/08/16/pagodalike-mosque-all-set-for-debut/
Pamment, J. (2012). New public diplomacy in the 21st century: A comparative study of policy and practice. New York: Routledge.
President Xi Jinping meets with Malaysian former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. (2013, October 5). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ mfa_eng/topics_665678/xjpfwynmlxycx21apec_665682/t1085199.shtml
Pries, L. (2005). Configuration of geographic and societal spaces: A sociological proposal between ‘method¬ological nationalism’ and the ‘spaces of flows’. Global Networks, 5(2), 167-190.
Pries, L. (2008). Transnational societal spaces: Which units of analysis, reference and measurement? In L. Pries (Ed.), Rethinking transnationalism: The meso-link of organizations (pp. 1-20). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Ptak, R., & Salmon, C. (2005). Zheng He: Geschichte und Fiktion. In C. Salmon & R. Ptak (Eds.), Zheng He. Images and perceptions (Bilder und Wahrnehmungen) (pp. 9-35). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Risse-Kappen, T. (1995). Bringing transnational relations back in: Introduction. In T. Risse-Kappen (Ed.), Bringing transnational relations back in: Non-state actors, domestic structures, and international institutions (pp. 3-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rosli, L. (2019, January 30). China remains Malaysia’s largest trading partner, 10 years running. The Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.nst.com.my/business/2019/01/455955/china-remains-malaysias-largest-trading-partner-10-years-running
Shagar, L. K. (2017, September 29). Classic China novel now in Bahasa Malaysia. The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/09/29/classic-china-novel-now-in-bahasa-msia-na¬jib-epics-translation-a-step-towards-great-cultural-exchang/
Shambaugh, D. (2013). China goes global: The partial power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shambaugh, D. (2008). China’s Communist Party: Atrophy and adaptation. Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
Sharp, P. (2005). Revolutionary states, outlaw regimes and the techniques of public diplomacy. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 106-123). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Shipping news: Zheng He’s sexcentenary. (2005, June 2). China Heritage Newsletter. Retrieved from http:// www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/articles.php?searchterm=002_zhenghe.inc&issue=002
Shuto, M. (2018). Patterns and views of China’s public diplomacy in ASEAN countries: Focusing on Confu¬cius Institutes. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 7(2), 124-148.
Suryadinata, L. (2017). The rise of China and the Chinese overseas: A study of Beijing’s changing policy in South¬east Asia and beyond. Singapore: ISEAS Press.
Suryadinata, L., Kua, B. L., & Koh, H. K. (2012). Zheng He yu Ya Fei shijie [Zheng He and Asian and African World]. Singapore: International Zheng He Society.
Tan, T. S. (2014). Cheng Ho and Malaya. Melaka: International Zheng He Society/Cheng Ho Cultural Mu¬seum.
Thirumaran, K. (2007). The politics of tourism: Ethnic Chinese spaces in Malaysia. In P. M. Burns & M. Novelli (Eds.), Tourism and politics: Global frameworks and local realities (pp. 193-209). Oxford: Elsevier.
Tuch, H. (1990). Communicating with the world: US public diplomacy overseas. New York: St Martin’s Press.
Vietnam overtakes Malaysia, becomes China’s biggest trading partner in ASEAN. (2018, July 27). The Jakar¬ta Post. Retrieved from https://www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2018/07/27/vietnam-overtakes-malay¬sia-becomes-chinas-biggest-trading-partner-in-asean-.html
Wade, G. (2005). The Zheng He voyages: A reassessment. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 78(1), 37-58.
Wong, E. (2014, December 18). Celebrating the legacy of a Chinese explorer. New York Times. Retrieved from
Worden, N. (2003). National identity and heritage tourism in Melaka. Indonesia and the Malay World, 31(89), 31-43.
Xi: China to promote cultural soft power. (2014, April 1). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.china.org.cn/ china/2014-01/01/content_31059390.htm
Xiamen University Malaysia. (2018, May 20). Xiamen University Malaysia student arrival [online video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anvNAftu5v0
Yao, S. (2016). The Malayan Emergency. Essays on a small, distant war. Copenhagen: NIAS Press.
Yow, C. H. (2016). The Chinese diaspora in China-Malaysia relations: Dynamics of and changes in multiple transnational ‘scapes’. Journal of Contemporary China, 25(102), 836-850.
Zarizi, Z. (2013, October 15). Melaka first Chinese-style mosque in Krubong. Melaka Cool. Retrieved from http://melakacool.com/melaka-firts-chinese-style-mosque-in-krubong
Zhang, X. (2012, April 17). Naval training ship going round the globe. China Daily USA. Retrieved from http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2012-04/17/content_15068906.htm
Beck, E. (2014, March 13). Chinese mosque for Malacca. Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved from http://www. freemalaysiatoday.com/category/leisure/2014/03/10/chinese-mosque-for-malacca/
Bentley, S. (2018). Malaysia’s “special relationship” with China and the South China Sea: Not so special any more. In G. Rozman & J. C. Liow (Eds.), International relations and Asia’s southern tier. ASEAN, Australia, and India (pp. 125-141). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chang, P. T. C. (2018, May 11). Ethnic Chinese in Malaysia are celebrating China’s rise – but as multicultural Malaysians, not Chinese. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from https://www.scmp.com/comment/ insight-opinion/article/2145521/ethnic-chinese-malaysia-are-celebrating-chinas-rise
Cheng, J. Y. S. (2013). China-ASEAN economic co-operation and the role of the provinces. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 43(2), 314-337.
Chia, L. S., & Church, S. K. (2012). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: PERZIM – International Zheng He Society.
Chiam, N. (2018, October 17). The 3rd International Seminar on the Modernization of Islam in China in University Sultan Zainal Abidin (UNISZA). Retrieved from http://kongzium.edu.my/main/2-017/10/18/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%B1%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%8A%E6%96 %AF%E5%85%B0%E6%95%99%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E7%A0%94%E8%AE%A8%E4%BC%9A%E5-%9C%A8%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A-%E8%8B%8F%E4%B8%B9%E5%86%8D/
China’s Xiamen University officially open campus in Greater KL. (2016, February 24). InvestKLMalaysia. Retrieved from http://www.investkl.gov.my/Relevant_News-@-China%E2%80%99s_Xiamen_Univer¬sity_officially_open_campus_in_Greater_KL.aspx
Chinese classic ‘Journey to the West’ now available in BM. (2014, July 4). New Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/09/chinese-classic-%E2%80%98journey-west%E2%80%99 -now-available-bm
Chinese envoy must apologise or go back to his country, Utusan says. (2015, September 27). Malay Mail Online. Retrieved from https://www.malaymail.com/s/977313/chinese-envoy-must-apologise-or-go-back-to-his-country-utusan-says
Chinese naval servicemen visit Zheng He relics in Malaysia. (2012, May 4). PLA Daily. Retrieved from http://en.people.cn/90786/7807942.html
Dreyer, E. L. (2007). Zheng He. China and the oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty: 1405-1433. New York: Pearson Longman.
Ethnic Groups of Malaysia. (2018). World Atlas. Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ ethnic-groups-of-malaysia.html
Exciting programme planned for Confucius Institute at SEGi University. (2016, May 2). SEGi University. Re¬trieved from https://www.segi.edu.my/news-events-1/exciting-programme-planned-for-confucius-in¬stitute-at-segi-university
Exnerova, V. (2017). Introducing transnationalism studies to the field of public diplomacy. The Journal of International Communication, 23(2), 186-199.
Faist, T. (2006). The transnational social spaces of migration. COMCAD Arbeitspapiere. Bielefeld: Center on Migration, Citizenship and Development.
Full text of Premier’s speech at the 10th East Asia Summit. (2015, November 25). The State Council, The People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://english.gov.cn/premier/speeches/2015/11/25/con¬tent_281475241888610.htm
Galeri Laksamana Cheng Ho. (n.d.). Perbadanan muzium negeri Melaka [Malacca museum cooperation]. Retrieved from http://www.perzim.gov.my/en/portfolio/galeri-laksamana-cheng-ho/
Gienow-Hecht, J., & Donfried, M. (2010). The model of cultural diplomacy: Power, distance and the promise of civil society. In J. Gienow-Hecht & M. Donfried (Eds.), Searching for a cultural diplomacy (pp. 13-29). Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Gil, J. (2015). China’s cultural projection: A discussion of the Confucius Institutes. China: An International Journal 13(1), 200-226.
Gilboa, E. (2008). Searching for a theory of public diplomacy. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, 55-77.
Hanban scholarship (n.d.). Kong Zi Institute University of Malaya. Retrieved from http://kongzium.edu.my/ main/study-in-china/scholarship/
Hartig, F. (2012). Confucius Institutes and the rise of China. Journal of Chinese Political Sciences, 17(1), 53-76.
Hocking, B. (2005). Rethinking the ‘new’ public diplomacy. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 28-43). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hong, L., & Huang, J. (2009). Portable histories in mobile city Singapore: The (lack)lustre of Admiral Zheng He. South East Asia Research, 17(2), 287-309.
d’Hooghe, I. (2011). The expansion of China’s public diplomacy system. In J. Wang (Ed.), Soft power in Chi¬na: Public diplomacy through communication (pp. 19-36). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
d’Hooghe, I. (2015). China’s public diplomacy. Leiden: Brill.
Hu Jintao calls for enhancing ‘soft power’ of Chinese culture. (2007, October 15). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/english/2007-10/15/content_776553.htm
Hruby, J. (in press). Establishing a common ground – Admiral Zheng He as an agent of cultural diplomacy in Malaysia. In G. Rawnsley & J. Ptackova (Eds.), Regional variations of Chinese cultural diplomacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ignatius, D. (2017, January 13). Malaysia’s China conundrum. Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved from https:// www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion/2017/01/13/malaysias-china-conundrum/
Ignatius, D. (2018, May 16). Reset in Malaysia-China relations. Dennis Ignatius. Retrieved from https:// dennisignatius.com/2018/05/16/reset-in-malaysia-china-relations/
International Zheng He Society. (n.d.). Discovery of Zheng He’s guan chang in Melaka. Retrieved from http://www.chengho.org/news/news8.1.php
Jia Qinglin delivers a speech at the welcoming banquet held by overseas Chinese in Malaysia and visits Malacca. (2013, February 7). Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the European Union. Retrieved from http://www.chinamission.be/eng/zgwj/t1014078.htm
Jiang, T. (2015, June 24). Interview: Malacca stands to benefit from “Belt and Road” initiative. Xinhua. Retrieved from w.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-04/26/c_134185358.htm
Kaur, M. (2013, August 26). Ipoh mosque features Chinese architecture. The Star. Retrieved from https:// www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/08/26/ipoh-mosque-features-chinese-architecture/
Kornphanat, T. (2016). Culture and commerce: China’s soft power in Thailand. International Journal of China studies, 7(2), 151-173.
Kuik, C. (2013). Making sense of Malaysia’s China policy: Asymmetry, proximity, and elite’s domestic authority. The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 6(4), 429-467.
Kuik, C., Li, R., & Sien, N. L. (2017). The institutional foundations and features of China-ASEAN connec¬tivity. In L. Dittmer & C. B. Ngeow (Eds.), Southeast Asia and China. A contest in mutual socialization (pp. 247-278). Singapore: World Scientific Pubslishing Co.
Kurlantzik, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China’s soft power is transforming the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lai, H., & Lu, Y. (Eds.). (2012). China’s soft power and international relations. New York: Routledge.
Lee, C. G., & Alam, N. (2005, May 1). Islamic finance potential in China. Islamic Markets. Retrieved from https://islamicmarkets.com/articles/islamic-finance-potential-china
Li Keqiang visits Malacca, indicating to carry forward China-Malaysia peace and friendship and create a future of mutually beneficial cooperation. (2015, November 23). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/lkqcxdyhzldrxl¬hybdmlxyjxzsfw/t1318284.shtml
Li, M. (2011). Soft power: Nurture not nature. In M. Li (Ed.), Soft power: China’s emerging strategy in interna¬tional politics (pp. 1-18). Lanham: Lexington Books.
Li, Q., & Cao, J. (2012, April 19). “Zheng He” training ship’s round-the-world navigation boasts four fea¬tures. PLA Daily. Retrieved from http://en.people.cn/90786/7792075.html
Li, R. (2005, May 28). Significance of Zheng He’s voyages. Beijing Review. Retrieved from http://www. bjreview.cn/EN/En-2005/05-28-e/china-2.htm
Looit, E. (2009, December 4). Chinese-style mosques for Malaysia. The Straits Times. Retrieved from http:// www.ytlcommunity.com/commnews/shownews.asp?newsid=50243
Mahathir warns of new ‘colonialism’ during visit to China. (2018, August 20). Bloomberg News. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-20/mahathir-warns-against-new-colonial¬ism-during-visit-to-china
Malaysian PM unveils Zheng He exhibition. (2005, July 6). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.china.org. cn/english/culture/134186.htm
Malhi, A. (2018). Race, debt and sovereignty – The ‘China Factor’ in Malaysia’s GE14. The Round Table. The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 107(6), 717-728.
Mark, S. (2009). A greater role for cultural diplomacy. Discussion Papers in Diplomacy, 114. The Hague: The Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’.
Melissen, J. (2005). The new public diplomacy: between theory and practice. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 3-27). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moving up the value chain. (2017). The Business Year. Retrieved from https://www.thebusinessyear.com/ malaysia-2017/supporting-innovation/interview
Murali, R. S. N. (2013, January 30). Zheng He ‘returns’ to Malacca. The Star. Retrieved from https://www. thestar.com.my/news/nation/2013/01/30/zheng-he-returns-to-malacca_1/
Murphy, Z. (2010, July 28). Zheng He: Symbol of China’s ‘peaceful rise’. BBC. Retrieved from http://www. bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10767321128
Ngeow, C. B. (2017a). Barisan Nasional and Chinese Communist Party: A case study in China’s party based diplomacy. The China Review, 17(1), 53-82.
Ngeow, C. B. (2017b, May 18). China’s religious charm offensive: The case of Malaysia. Asia Dialogue. Retrieved from https://theasiadialogue.com/2017/05/18/chinas-religious-charm-offensive-the-case-of-malaysia/
No harm in having Chinese mosque. (2007. February 6). The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar. com.my/opinion/letters/2007/02/06/no-harm-in-having-chinese-mosque/
Nostalgic ties with Malaysia. (2018, June 8). Xiamen University Malaysia. Retrieved from http://www.xmu. edu.my/59/ee/c14682a285166/page.htm
Nye, J. (2011). The future of power. New York: Public Affairs.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. New York: Public Affairs.
Pagoda-like mosque all set for debut. (2009, August 16). The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com. my/news/nation/2009/08/16/pagodalike-mosque-all-set-for-debut/
Pamment, J. (2012). New public diplomacy in the 21st century: A comparative study of policy and practice. New York: Routledge.
President Xi Jinping meets with Malaysian former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. (2013, October 5). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Retrieved from https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ mfa_eng/topics_665678/xjpfwynmlxycx21apec_665682/t1085199.shtml
Pries, L. (2005). Configuration of geographic and societal spaces: A sociological proposal between ‘method¬ological nationalism’ and the ‘spaces of flows’. Global Networks, 5(2), 167-190.
Pries, L. (2008). Transnational societal spaces: Which units of analysis, reference and measurement? In L. Pries (Ed.), Rethinking transnationalism: The meso-link of organizations (pp. 1-20). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Ptak, R., & Salmon, C. (2005). Zheng He: Geschichte und Fiktion. In C. Salmon & R. Ptak (Eds.), Zheng He. Images and perceptions (Bilder und Wahrnehmungen) (pp. 9-35). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Risse-Kappen, T. (1995). Bringing transnational relations back in: Introduction. In T. Risse-Kappen (Ed.), Bringing transnational relations back in: Non-state actors, domestic structures, and international institutions (pp. 3-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rosli, L. (2019, January 30). China remains Malaysia’s largest trading partner, 10 years running. The Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.nst.com.my/business/2019/01/455955/china-remains-malaysias-largest-trading-partner-10-years-running
Shagar, L. K. (2017, September 29). Classic China novel now in Bahasa Malaysia. The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/09/29/classic-china-novel-now-in-bahasa-msia-na¬jib-epics-translation-a-step-towards-great-cultural-exchang/
Shambaugh, D. (2013). China goes global: The partial power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shambaugh, D. (2008). China’s Communist Party: Atrophy and adaptation. Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
Sharp, P. (2005). Revolutionary states, outlaw regimes and the techniques of public diplomacy. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 106-123). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Shipping news: Zheng He’s sexcentenary. (2005, June 2). China Heritage Newsletter. Retrieved from http:// www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/articles.php?searchterm=002_zhenghe.inc&issue=002
Shuto, M. (2018). Patterns and views of China’s public diplomacy in ASEAN countries: Focusing on Confu¬cius Institutes. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 7(2), 124-148.
Suryadinata, L. (2017). The rise of China and the Chinese overseas: A study of Beijing’s changing policy in South¬east Asia and beyond. Singapore: ISEAS Press.
Suryadinata, L., Kua, B. L., & Koh, H. K. (2012). Zheng He yu Ya Fei shijie [Zheng He and Asian and African World]. Singapore: International Zheng He Society.
Tan, T. S. (2014). Cheng Ho and Malaya. Melaka: International Zheng He Society/Cheng Ho Cultural Mu¬seum.
Thirumaran, K. (2007). The politics of tourism: Ethnic Chinese spaces in Malaysia. In P. M. Burns & M. Novelli (Eds.), Tourism and politics: Global frameworks and local realities (pp. 193-209). Oxford: Elsevier.
Tuch, H. (1990). Communicating with the world: US public diplomacy overseas. New York: St Martin’s Press.
Vietnam overtakes Malaysia, becomes China’s biggest trading partner in ASEAN. (2018, July 27). The Jakar¬ta Post. Retrieved from https://www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2018/07/27/vietnam-overtakes-malay¬sia-becomes-chinas-biggest-trading-partner-in-asean-.html
Wade, G. (2005). The Zheng He voyages: A reassessment. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 78(1), 37-58.
Wong, E. (2014, December 18). Celebrating the legacy of a Chinese explorer. New York Times. Retrieved from
Worden, N. (2003). National identity and heritage tourism in Melaka. Indonesia and the Malay World, 31(89), 31-43.
Xi: China to promote cultural soft power. (2014, April 1). Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.china.org.cn/ china/2014-01/01/content_31059390.htm
Xiamen University Malaysia. (2018, May 20). Xiamen University Malaysia student arrival [online video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anvNAftu5v0
Yao, S. (2016). The Malayan Emergency. Essays on a small, distant war. Copenhagen: NIAS Press.
Yow, C. H. (2016). The Chinese diaspora in China-Malaysia relations: Dynamics of and changes in multiple transnational ‘scapes’. Journal of Contemporary China, 25(102), 836-850.
Zarizi, Z. (2013, October 15). Melaka first Chinese-style mosque in Krubong. Melaka Cool. Retrieved from http://melakacool.com/melaka-firts-chinese-style-mosque-in-krubong
Zhang, X. (2012, April 17). Naval training ship going round the globe. China Daily USA. Retrieved from http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2012-04/17/content_15068906.htm
Downloads
Published
2019-06-28
Issue
Section
Current Research on Southeast Asia
License
Copyright (c) 2019 SEAS - Society for South-East Asian Studies
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.
For all articles published in ASEAS before December 2014 and after July 2022, copyright is retained by the authors. For articles published between January 2015 and June 2022, the Society for South-East Asian Studies (SEAS) is the copyright holder. Articles published in ASEAS before December 2019 are licensed under the following Creative Commons License: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported. Articles published after that date are licensed under the following Creative Commons License: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International. In both cases, this means that everybody is free to share (to copy, to distribute, and to transmit the work) under the following conditions:
-
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
-
NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.
-
NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material.
